How to structure your answers for the interview - The STAR approach - With an example

 How to structure your answers

Most of the questions used to assess your competency in a particular area will start with the phrases –

• Tell us about a time…

• Describe a situation where…

• Talk us through…

• Give us an example of…

A useful way to structure your answer is with the mnemonic STAR.

S/T = Situation or Task

You are setting the scene, giving a brief description of the situation or task you were facing.

A = Action or Ability demonstrated

You outline what you actually did, how you approached handling the situation. You are emphasising the skills you displayed. When describing what you did, avoid using broad generalisations or clichés, the more specific you are the better.

R = Result or Resolution

This is where you wrap up your answer by sharing how your actions resolved the situation or completed the task. Sharing what you learned from the specific example is a nice way to conclude your answer, especially when the outcome of the situation wasn’t what you expected.

Here is an example of how to structure an answer using the STAR approach.

– Give me an example of how you dealt with a non-performer on your team (could be asked to assess a range of competencies –leadership skills, managing others, motivation, supervisory skills.)

There was an instance a few months ago where one person on my team was consistently missing deadlines. His work was good otherwise, but he just didn’t seem to have the sense of urgency that was required and it was impacting on the other team members who had to pick up the slack.
(Situation is explained.)

I firmly believe that the vast majority of people come to work to do a good job, so his behaviour was a symptom; I wanted to discover the cause. I arranged a 1-2-1 meeting so I could discuss the situation in broad terms, not task specifically, as I had done before. I tried to set the appropriate tone; my role was to help him, because I knew he cared about his work. I listened, giving him an opportunity to talk through the challenges as he saw them. Two main issues came to light; one was his fear of making a mistake which for me demonstrated real conscientiousness. I explained that we are all only human; if a mistake happened it was my role to deal with it. I emphasised the good work he was doing.

The second issue was a minor training issue. There were alternative ways he could approach a particular process so I arranged for him to sit with a more experienced colleague to learn from her. I emphasised the importance of meeting deadlines and for him to ask for assistance if he felt he was getting behind. We agreed to meet again to revisit the issue. (Actions outlined.)

I could see almost immediately that he approached his work in a more relaxed way. He was never going to be the fastest in completing tasks, but he was more confident in what he was doing and now asked for help sooner if he felt a deadline was in jeopardy. Interestingly he was adamant that he didn’t want to let the team down, which just reinforced for me that when team members feel you support them, that you are willing to listen to them, most issues can be resolved. (Result with learning noted for good measure.)

U have a better example. Share it below in the comment section.

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Your strengths – what your interviewers want to know about you

Your strengths – what you want interviewers to know about you 

When you think about it, top of the list of things you want interviewers to know about you are your strengths, the positive reasons why it makes sense to offer you the job. Interviewers obviously endeavour to uncover your strengths during the interview, but you are making their job easier, not to mention selling yourself in a positive and proactive way, when you go into the interview clearly knowing your strengths as a candidate. 

So what are strengths? 

Strengths can be talents or aptitudes you have, for example, being a good communicator or listener, being naturally empathetic or good with numbers and so on. They can be learned skills like marketing, accountancy or IT skills. Strengths can also be personal qualities or characteristics, for example having an optimistic or can-do attitude, being friendly or self-motivated. Determining your strengths, and packaging them in a way that ties in with what the interviewers are seeking, is where good interview preparation starts. Before I share with you some questions that will help you discover your strengths, let’s look at the different questions interviewers will ask to identify your strengths.

Questions interviewers ask to uncover your strengths 

If you have attended interviews in the past, you will probably remember some of these questions. You are practically guaranteed to be asked at least one of them during an interview. 

• Talk me through some of your strengths 

• What do you consider to be your main strengths? 

This is the direct way of asking the strengths question. But there are other ways that may not be quite as obvious at first. 

• How will you add value to this organisation? 

• What do you see yourself bringing to the role? 

• Why would you consider yourself to be an asset to the team? 

• Why do you think you are the best person for the role? 

• Why should we employ you? (The harshest way of asking it.)

Remember, that irrespective of how it is asked, your answer to all these questions is drawn from your awareness of your own strengths. 

The interviewer may be very specific in asking the question. 

• What is your greatest strength? 

This can be a tougher question to answer because you can only emphasise a single strength. Although it is not explicitly asked, you would also explain why you have selected that strength as your main strength. There are other questions that interviewers can ask that also lead us into the territory of strengths. 

• If I was to ask one of your colleagues or your current (or past) manager to describe you, what do you think they would say? 

This is an opportunity to speak about your strengths whilst at the same time the interviewers are inviting you to view yourself as you think others see you, which also informs them of your level of self awareness. 

• What qualifies you for this job? 

This is a very direct question. You answer it by referencing your experience, qualifications, your main strengths and your ambition to succeed.

• How would you describe yourself? (Tell me a bit about yourself.) 

This is a very open question, sometimes asked at the beginning of an interview (and often by less experienced or prepared interviewers.) It is such a wide question that candidates can struggle to answer it. You don’t give the interviewers your life story, but you can seize the opportunity of such an open question to shape your answer around your strengths, mixing in a little of your career history or personal interests at the same time. So if the odds are you are going to be asked the strengths question in some shape or format, it makes sense to clearly know your strengths in advance of the interview.

Uncovering your strengths 

The questions that follow will help you uncover your strengths. There is a possibility that you could be asked some of these questions at an interview, but we are using them here as a way for you to identify the building blocks you will work with when constructing your answer to the other questions listed in this blog. 

• What are you good at in the context of your work? 

• What comes easily or naturally to you? 

• What have you been complimented on in the past for? 

• What aspects of work do you enjoy the most? 

• At work, when are you at your best? 

Another way of identifying your strengths is to think about those activities or situations that just make you feel strong on the inside. 

Examples of strengths include – 

• Good organisation skills 

• Being self-motivated 

• Good with people 

• A reliable team player 

• Strategic thinker 

• Leadership skills 

• Friendly, easy to get on with 

• A keen learner 

• Committed to furthering your career

• Good with detail 

• A good listener

Packaging your strengths into an answer 

When packaging your strengths into an answer you will have one eye on the job description, and the competencies the employer is seeking (Chapter Three is all about competencies.) For example, if the competency ‘interpersonal skills’ is used in the role description, use it, as opposed to synonyms like ‘relationship skills,’ or ‘people skills.’ When asked the strengths question you are not going to list every one of your strengths. You choose three or four of your most impactful strengths and shape them into your answer. 

Q – What would you bring to the role? I would like to think I would bring a strong track record of achievement. I try to be professional in everything I do because I’m eager to do good work. I’m a good organiser and I enjoy working with people, I’d be a committed team-player

          Q – How do you feel you would add value to the team? I would describe myself as self-motivated, so I would like to think I’d bring energy and enthusiasm with me into the team. I enjoy working with others and being part of a team, I think there is no greater buzz than achieving a goal with colleagues. Listening, accommodating other people’s points of views is vital when part of a team and I think this is a strength of mine, my ability to get on well with a diverse group of people

It would be easy for the interviewer to note the key strengths from answers like these. Your strengths are your building blocks and you structure your answer around them.

More tips for shaping your answers 

Anyone who has been to an interview can recognise the following scenario. You are asked a question and you begin to answer it. Words are coming out of your mouth and you hope by the time you stop speaking that you have said something at least semi-logical and have not rambled off the point entirely. Whilst we cannot predict every question we will be asked, we can have a plan as to how we will go about structuring our answer to any question. 

Think of your answers as linked bullet points 

Most interviews today consist of at least two interviewers. One interviewer may have a HR (Human Resources) background; the other might be a manager from the business unit where the vacancy is located. Interviewers will probably have decided in advance what questions they will ask and they will write down the key points of your answers. When we respond to a question without some preconceived idea of what we want to communicate, it is very difficult for the interviewers to note our salient points (because we don’t know them!) Ideally you want to be able to influence what the interviewers are jotting down about you. If your answers are punchy, built around two or three key points, the odds of them noting your key points are far higher. 

In preparing your answers you don’t want to come across as robotic, blunt or too succinct, nor do you want to waffle away talking semi-nonsense. The right balance is achieved by thinking of your answers as linked bullet points, two or three key points moulded into a flowing answer. Now it is not possible to do this all the time, but when thinking about your answers to the questions in this and subsequent chapters, think about your two or three key points and how you will link them. Put yourself in the interviewers’ shoes and imagine them writing on their notepads the key words and phrases you are communicating in your answer.

Using the conditional tense 

A great phrase to remember and use at an interview is ‘I would like to think that.’ At an interview you are being asked to sell yourself, to talk yourself up. Many people are uncomfortable doing that because they don’t want to come across as arrogant. Using the phrase ‘I would like to think,’ gives you permission to sell yourself, to talk about all your strengths and positive points, and you won’t come across as bigheaded or brash. Contrast these two answers. 

Q – Why do you think you are the best person for the job? 

I’m a strong team-player but I’m able to take the lead when I have to. I’ve a great track record and good experience in this area and I’m not afraid of hard work.

Using the conditional tense - I would like to think that I’m a strong team-player but I’m able to take the lead when I have to. I believe that I have a great track record and good experience in this area and on top of all that I’m not afraid of hard work. The second answer flows better and starting your answer using the conditional tense allows you to use even stronger, more assertive language in your response. 

The second answer flows better and starting your answer using the conditional tense allows you to use even stronger, more assertive language in your response.  

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How to excel at job interview - Answers to the most common behavioral questions

There are a number of questions you are almost guaranteed to be asked at an interview, so it makes sense to give them some thought beforehand. You don’t want your answers to be rehearsed to the point of being robotic, but you do want to know the key points you want to communicate. Below are some of the common questions asked at an interview, as well as some tips for answering them.

What are your weaknesses? 

Interview candidates often fear this one. Let’s face it no one likes to dwell on their weaknesses. You want to be honest, but at the same time you don’t want to shoot yourself in the foot. In the past, candidates used to answer this question by taking one of their strengths and exaggerating it, as too much of any strength is a weakness.

‘I’m so dedicated to my work, that occasionally I can come across as impatient, but it is only because others may not be as efficient as I am.’

Impatience is the alleged weakness, sandwiched between the strengths of dedication and efficiency. Whilst a ‘spin’ answer like this can still work, most interviewers are now wise to it, so I would recommend a different and more straightforward approach. The key to answering this question is to realise that the interviewer doesn’t really want to know your weaknesses. They ask this question to discover how self aware you are. The best way to answer this question is to reference an area that you feel is not quite a strength yet, and to emphasise how you are consciously working on improving it. 

‘In some situations I’m not as assertive as I would like to be, so I suppose a weakness would be that I’m a little reticent, but it is something I’m working on. When the opportunity comes along to volunteer for a task, I will put myself forward. If I’m at seminar or a workshop now I make a point of asking a question which takes me outside my comfort zone.’

The absolute wrong answer to give to the weaknesses question is ‘I don’t think I have any weaknesses.’ Someone who responds this way is only advertising their arrogance and their lack of self awareness, ironically two real weaknesses! 

Where do you see yourself in five years time? 

This is the ambition question. The reason an interviewer asks it is to determine if you are someone who is interested in shaping a career, as opposed to just getting a job. Alternative ways of asking this question are – 

• Do you have a plan for your career? 

• How do you see yourself developing in your career? 

The wrong way to answer this question is ‘to be sitting in your chair doing your job.’ Even when said in a humorous way, you will still come across as a little arrogant and it also shows you have not prepared for the question. Nowadays most interviewers know that people are not expected to remain in the same job, or even the same organisation, for the duration of their careers. So you don’t need to be too specific in your answer. A good way to approach answering this question is to keep it industry specific and include the main factors that are important to you in terms of your career development. 

‘I am committed to working in this industry and I would hope that in five years time I will have advanced in my career, having gained valuable experience and learned new skills. I would like to think that I have the potential to go far. Feeling that I’m progressing and growing in my role is what’s important to me, as opposed to just having a specific future role in mind.’

Common sense will of course dictate that if you know exactly where you want to be in five years time, for example, running your own business, you will keep that to yourself! 

What motivates you? 

If the last question was the ambition question, this is the motivation question and as well as being asked directly, it can be broached indirectly.

• What gets you out of bed in the morning?

• What excites you (about your work?) 

• What element of your work brings you the most satisfaction? 

• What’s important to you about your work/career? 

The clue to answering the motivation question is in the word ‘motivation’ itself. The first part of the word, if we add in an ‘e’ is ‘motive,’ why something is important to you. If we add a ‘c’ to the second part of the word we have ‘action.’ So, what’s important to you about your work/career? Reflecting on this question will help you shape your answer to the motivation question. 

The following are factors that often figure in candidates’ answers. 

• A sense of achievement 

• Good working relationships with my colleagues 

• The ability to develop new skills 

• Achieving goals and targets 

• Overcoming challenges and solving problems 

• Working towards realising my potential 

Why have you applied for this job? 

This is another question interviewers will use to discover your motivations. When answering this question it is best to focus on the future, what you hope to bring to the role and what you hope to gain from working with the company. If your main reason for applying is to be able to leave, what you consider to be a toxic working environment, for example, you dislike your current manager, best to keep that to yourself. Complaining about your current or past employer, will not serve you at an interview, focus instead on the future and why you feel the company is a good match for you at this stage in your career.

What do you know about this company? 

A competent interviewer will always ask you this question because it is the quickest way for them to gain an insight into how well you have prepared for the interview. The level of detail in your answer will reveal how serious you are about getting the job. If you haven’t done your homework on the company, the seed is sown in the interviewer’s mind that perhaps you will struggle to demonstrate initiative, or motivate yourself at work. Knowing the basic information contained on the company’s website is the minimum that is expected in response to this question. If the company has been in the news recently you would also be expected to be aware of this. For senior positions, knowledge of the industry as well as social and economic issues impacting the company would be required. Interviewers can ask a range of questions to unearth your knowledge of their company. 

For example, 

• What do you know about what we do? 

• Who do you think are our main competitors? 

• What suggestions do you have for our company? 

• What do you feel are the main issues facing our business? 

Here are two suggestions for carrying out the research necessary to answer these questions competently. 

Set up a Google Alert Google 

Alerts is accessed by clicking ‘more’ on the Google homepage. The ‘Alerts’ function allows you to monitor new postings to the web that relate to the search criteria you enter. If you enter the name of the company into the search criteria and follow the other simple instructions, you will receive email updates from Google alerting you to new information posted to the web relating to the company. You will receive links to newspaper articles, press releases, survey results, even blog posts. It is free tool and a great aid to research of any kind. You can set up as many Google Alerts as you wish. Perhaps it would be useful to establish a search criteria for specific industry phrases, news items, or even people. You will receive information that is not relevant, but equally you may get some really useful insights that will give you a competitive edge at the interview. 

Use your network 

It is said we have moved from the Information Age to the Relationship Age. Information is becoming a commodity, so it is not what you know, but who you know that makes the difference. Do you know anyone who works in the company where you are interviewing? Do you know anyone who works in the same industry? From my experience, when we approach people in a friendly and professional way, they are happy to offer their advice. There is no better way to gain an understanding of what it is like to work in a specific organisation than to speak to someone already working there.

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Internet and World wide web

The Internet and World-Wide Web

The Internet is a vast network of computers connected across the globe that can share both information and processing (Oz and Jones, 2008). Information is transmitted from PCs whose users request services to computers that hold information and host business applications that deliver the services in response to requests. The PCs within homes and businesses are connected to the Internet via local Internet service providers (ISPs) which, in turn, are linked to larger ISPs with connection to the major national and international infrastructure or backbones. The Internet can be described is as a global network system made up of smaller systems. The Internet was conceived by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), an American intelligence organisation, in 1969. The Internet began to achieve its current form in 1987, growing from systems developed by DARPA and the National Science Foundation (NSF).

Web-Enabled Business

Web-enabled business can be classified by those parties involved in business transactions. The most common transactions identified as those when an organisation is using the Internet to transact with consumers, termed business-to-consumer (B2C) or when an organisation is transacting with other businesses, termed business-to-business (B2B). The relationship between a company and its suppliers and customers can be dramatically altered by the opportunities afforded by the Internet. This occurs because the Internet offers a means of bypassing some of the channel partners. This process is known as disintermediation or ‘cutting out the middleman’. The benefits of disintermediation are that it is able to remove the sales and infrastructure cost of selling through the channel. Some of these cost savings can be passed on to the customer in the form of cost reductions. Although disintermediation is widespread the creation of new intermediaries between customers and suppliers, termed re-intermediation, has also occurred. For example in the travel industry companies such as Tripadvisor provide information regarding destinations and hotels and then provide links to hotel providers.

Intranets and extranets

The majority of Internet services are available to any business or consumer that has access to the Internet. However, many business applications that access sensitive company information require access to be limited to favoured individuals or third parties. If information is limited to those inside an organisation the network is termed an intranet. If access is extended to some others, but not everyone beyond the organisation, the network is termed an extranet (Laudon and Laudon, 2007). Extranets can be accessed by authorised people outside the company such as collaborators, suppliers or major customers, but information is not available to everyone with an Internet connection but restricted using password access. Intranets are also used for sharing information such as staff phone directories, staff procedures or quality manuals, information for agents such as product specifications, current list and discounted prices, competitor information, factory schedules and stocking levels – all this information normally has to be updated frequently and can be costly. Extranets are used extensively to support activities such as ordering from suppliers.

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web provides a standard method for exchanging and publishing information on the Internet. The medium is based on standard document formats such as HTML (hypertext markup language) which has been widely adopted because it supports a wide range of formatting facilities making documents easy to read on different access devices. It also incorporates graphics and animations which can be integrated into web pages and interaction is possible through HTML-based forms that enable customers to supply their personal details for more information on a product, perform searches, ask questions or make comments.

It is the combination of web browsers and HTML that has proved so successful in establishing widespread business use of the Internet. The use of these tools provides a range of benefits such as increasing the ease to which navigation between documents is enabled by the use of hyperlinks or images. This soon becomes a very intuitive way of navigation which  is similar across all web sites and applications. It can provide a graphical environment supporting multimedia which is popular with users and gives a visual medium for advertising. The standardisation of tools and growth in demand means information can be exchanged with many businesses and consumers.

Web browsers and servers

Web browsers are software applications that are used to access the information on the world wide web that is stored on web servers. Web servers are used to store, manage and supply the information on the world wide web. The main web browsers in use are Microsoft Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. Browsers display the text and graphics accessed from web sites and provide tools for managing information from web sites.Web browsers communicate with web servers in the following way. A request from a PC is executed when the user types in a web address, clicks on a hyperlink or fills in an online form such as a search. This request is then sent to the ISP and routed across the Internet to the destination server using the mechanism described in the section on protocols. The server then returns the requested web page if it   is a static (fixed) page, or if it requires reference to a database, such as a request for product information, it will pass the query on to a database server and will then return this to the customer as a dynamically created web page. Information on all page requests is stored in a transaction log file which records the page requested, the time it was made and the source of the enquiry.

E-business

E-business involves several key activities including improving business processes, enhancing communications and providing the means to carry out business transactions securely. E-business is part of a broader Internet economy which encompasses all of the activities involved in using the Internet for commerce. The Internet economy is made up of the following layers:

- Internet Infrastructure. Companies that provide the hardware, software and other equipment for the Internet. Examples: ISPs, networking companies and manufacturers of PCs and servers.

- Internet Applications Infrastructure. Companies that provide software facilitating Internet transactions.

Also, companies that provide web development, design and consulting services. Examples: producers of web development software, web-enabled databases and search engines.

- Internet Intermediaries. Companies that link buyers and sellers, for example by providing content or by creating marketplaces where business can be transacted. Examples: travel agents, content providers and online brokerages.

- Internet Commerce. Companies that sell products and services to consumers or other companies. Examples: online retailers, subscription or fee-based services and manufacturers selling directly to the public.

In general, the benefits of e-business include reduced costs, improved efficiency and access to larger markets. By automating many of the administrative tasks associated with ordering, supplying and delivering goods or services, the cost of a typical business transaction can be reduced significantly. E-procurement is used to reduce administrative costs and purchase goods at lower prices. It was mentioned earlier that adopting an e-business approach could help to enhance three main areas of business: production processes, customer-focused processes and internal management processes. In terms of customer-focused processes, for example, the efficiency of customer services can be improved through the introduction of a help desk on the company’s web site. As well as helping customers, such a facility can also act to reduce costs by reducing pressure on other support services, such as telephone helplines. Finally, the adoption of an e-business approach can help companies to reach a larger, global market. This is often one of the benefits of restructuring the relationship between manufacturer, retailers and customers.

E-commerce

A common activity associated with e-business is e-commerce which can be described as using technology to conduct business transactions, such as buying and selling goods and services. However, e-commerce involves more than merely conducting electronic transactions; it also encompasses a wide range of associated activities, such as after-sales support and even logistics.

E-commerce activities can be broken down into five basic types:

- Business-to-business (B2B). Transactions take place between companies. Approximately 80 per cent of all e-commerce is of this type.

- Business-to-consumer (B2C). Companies sell products directly to consumers. B2C can involve activities such as product research (where consumers gather information and compare prices) and electronic delivery (where information products are delivered to consumers via e-mail or other means).

- Business-to-government (B2G). Transactions take place between companies and public sector organizations.

- Consumer-to-consumer (C2C). Transactions take place between private individuals. Perhaps the best examples of C2C commerce are online auction sites and peer-to-peer systems.

- Mobile commerce (m-commerce). M-Commerce is a relatively new development and involves selling goods or services via wireless technology, especially mobile phones.

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Software - Management Information System

Software can be defined as a series of detailed instructions that control the operation of a computer system and exists as programs which are developed by computer programmers. There are two major categories of software of systems software and applications software (Laudon and Laudon, 2007).

Systems software

Systems software manages and controls the operation of the computer system as it performs tasks on behalf of the user. Systems software consists of three basic categories: operating systems, software development programs and utility programs.

Operating Systems (OS)

The operating system interacts with the hardware of the computer by monitoring and sending instructions to manage and direct the computer’s resources. The operating system functions as an intermediary between the functions the user needs to perform, for example a database search, and how these translate to and from the hardware in the form of responding to mouse clicks and displaying information on the screen. The basic functions of the operating system include: allocating and managing system resources, scheduling the use of resources and monitoring the activities of the computer system.

Software Development programs

Software development programs allow users to develop their own software in order to carry out processing tasks     using programming languages. Programming languages can be described in terms of their historical position in the development of computer programming systems. The first generation programming language or machine language requires a programmer to work in one and zeros to represent characters and numbers. This extremely time consuming tasks was somewhat simplified using shorter codes and called assembly language. A major advance came with third generation languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC ,Pascal and C which substantially reduce the programmer’s time in producing code. Fourth generation languages such as SQL are built around a database system and make producing code even easier than third generation languages.

Utility programs

Utility programs provide a range of tools that support the operation and management of a computer system. Programs that monitor system performance or provide security controls are examples of utility programs.

Application software

Application software can be defined as a set of programs that enable users to perform specific information-processing activities. Application software can be divided into two broad categories: general-purpose and application-specific.

General-purpose applications

General-purpose applications are programs that can be used to carry out a wide range of common tasks. A word processor, for example, is capable of producing a variety of documents that are suitable for many different purposes. This type     of application is often referred to as productivity software since it helps improve the efficiency of an individual. Word processing software involves the creation of various internal and external documents, including letters, reports, invoices, notes and minutes of meetings. Spreadsheet software enables the storage, organisation and analysis of numerical data. Databases software allows for the storage and retrieval of information. Multimedia software allows the user to work with media such as text, sound, animation and video.

Application-specific software

Application-specific software comprises programs intended to serve a specific purpose or carry out a clearly defined information processing task. Software designed to carry out payroll processing or manage accounts is an example of an application-specific program.

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Hardwares - Management Information System

Hardware describes the physical components of a computer system which can be categorised as input devices, a central processing unit, internal and external memory and output devices (Beynon-Davis, 2009). Input devices are used to capture or enter data into the computer. The central processing unit (CPU) performs processing by carrying out instructions given in the form of computer programs. Internal memory is used as a temporary means of storage data and instructions while external memory provides a means of storing data and programs outside of the computer. Output devices translate the results of processing into a human-readable form. These hardware components will now be described in more detail.

Input devices

Input devices are used to enter data or instructions from outside the computer into the computer. A mouse and keyboard are examples of input devices. The choice of an input device will often depend upon the quantity of data to be entered. Entering data on a small scale is normally carried out by human operators, using a number of familiar input devices, such as the mouse or keyboard. A computer-based information system will seldom make use of only a single input device. Even a typical personal computer will often feature several different methods for data entry, such as keyboard, mouse, joystick and sound card.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) or processor accepts instructions and data and executes them storing the results in memory. The increased speed of computers is primarily a result of increasing CPU speeds. The speed of a processor will depend upon a number of different factors. such as the clock speed and bus width. The clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute. The bus width describes how many pieces of data can be transmitted at one time. In both cases the higher the value, the more powerful the processor. Clock speed and bandwidth values can be helpful when attempting to compare processors in order to select the most appropriate.

Internal and External Memory

Computer memory is categorised as internal memory (also called main memory or primary memory) which is data held on the computer and external memory (also called external storage) which is data stored on a separate device where the information will be retained even if the machine is switched off. Computer memory is used to store data awaiting processing, instructions loaded from software which are used to process data or control the computer system and data or information that has been processed. Floppy and hard disks are examples of external memory.

Output devices

Output devices display the results of computer processing. A computer-based information system will make use of a number of output devices as a monitor, printer and sound card.

Major categories of computers

There are three basic categories of computer: mainframe, minicomputer and microcomputer. We will briefly examine  the characteristics of each category, in order to understand more of how industry makes use of computer technology.

Mainframe

Mainframe computers have been traditional associated with large, powerful machines designed for large-scale data- processing activities. The use of mainframe computers in industry, once responsible for the large revenues of companies such as IBM has declined steadily over the past two decades. IBM, Fujitsu and Unisys are current suppliers. Advances in technology have enabled smaller, less expensive systems to compete with mainframes in terms of speed and power. A modern personal computer, for example, could be considered many times more powerful than one of the very earliest mainframe systems. In many organisations, mainframe computers are considered legacy systems, meaning that while managers recognise that the existing system may not be entirely adequate to meet the company’s needs, a changeover would be difficult to implement.

Minicomputers

The minicomputer combines some of the characteristics of the mainframe computer and the microcomputer. Today, they are often referred to as servers by companies such as IBM (e.g. the IBM AS/400) and Hewlett-Packard (e.g. HP Alpha). Different types of server may have different functions, such as managing a network or hosting a database.

Microcomputers

The microcomputer makes use of more modern technology to provide relatively powerful computing facilities at low cost. Microcomputers are now often referred to as the ‘client’ machine which receives services and data from a ‘server’ machine. Some of the major characteristics of the microcomputer are that they a re small, relatively inexpensive and can be used for a variety of purposes.

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Management Information System

Introduction

It is important to distinguish between data and information. Data is a raw fact and can take the form of a number or statement such as a date or a measurement. It is necessary for businesses to put in place procedures to ensure data are recorded. For example, to ensure a call centre operator includes the postcode of every customer this can be written into their script and a validation check performed to check these data have been entered into the system.

A common definition of information is that it is data that have been processed so that they are meaningful (Oz and Jones, 2008). This requires a process that is used to produce information which involves collecting data and then subjecting them to a transformation process in order to create information. Some examples of information include a sales forecast or a financial statement.

As stated information is generated through the transformation of data. This can be achieved using a number of different transformation or data processes. Some examples of data processes include aggregating which summarises data by such means as taking an average value of a group of numbers. Classification places data into categories such as on-time and late deliveries. Sorting organises data so that items are placed in a particular order, for example listing orders by delivery date. Calculations can be made on data such as calculating an employee’s pay by multiplying the number of hours worked by the hourly rate of pay. Finally data can be chosen based on a set of selection criteria, such as the geographical location of customers.

Although information is an useful resource for individuals and organisations not all information can be considered useful. The differences between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ information can be identified by considering whether or not it has some or all of the attributes of information quality. Attributes can be related to the timing, content and form of the information.

Timeliness refers to that the information should be available when needed. If information is provided too early, it may no longer be current when used. If the information is supplied too late, it will be of no use. Also the information should cover the correct time period. A sales forecast, for example, might include information concerning past performance, current performance and predicted performance so that the recipient has a view of past, present and future circumstances.

The content of the information refers to factors such as the accuracy of the information and relevance of the information to a particular situation and user.

The form of the information refers to aspects such as the clarity of the information which should be appropriate to the intended recipient. The recipient should be able to locate specific items quickly and should be able to understand the information easily. The information should also contain the correct level of detail in order to meet the recipient’s information needs. For example, in some cases highly detailed information will be required whilst in others only a summary will be necessary.

Defining Systems

A system can be defined as a collection of components that work together towards a common goal. The objective of a system is to receive inputs and transform these into outputs. In the previous section ‘defining data and information’ the use of a transformation process was used to explain how data is converted into information. Not every system has a single goal and often a system contains several subsystems with subgoals, all contributing to meeting the overall system goal. For example the finance, operations and marketing areas of an organisation should all have goals which together help to achieve overall corporate objectives. It can be seen that in systems data are used as the input for a process that creates information as an output. In order to monitor the performance of the system, some kind of feedback mechanism is required. In addition, control must be exerted to correct any problems that occur and ensure that the system is fulfilling its purpose. There are thus five components of a generic system in terms of input, process, output, feedback and control.

Defining Information Systems

The role of the Information systems to provide information to management which will enable them to make decisions which ensure that the organisation is controlled. The organisation will be in control if it is meeting the needs of the environment. In relation to control systems can be classified into open-loop and closed-loop (Bocij et al., 2008).

An open-loop control system is one that has no way of ensuring objectives are met for a process. This means they are unsuitable in an organisational context because of the complexity of the environment in which organisations exist. Thus open-loop systems would only be successful in attaining a system’s objectives in cases where we know with certainty the events that would take place during the system’s process

Closed loop systems can have two types of control mechanism referred to as feedback control and feedforward control. Feedback control systems generally provide a way of ensuring a system is under control. Negative feedback is when actions are taken to reverse any differences between desired and actual outputs. The weakness of this approach is the potential for delay between the discrepancy and the action taken to reduce it. Feedforward control systems attempt to overcome the time-delay associated with feedback systems by incorporating a prediction element in the control feedback loop. Feedforward systems are not as common as feedback systems in business settings. Examples include project management plans which are made to meet time, quality and cost objectives over time.

Management Information Systems

With the previous definitions of information and systems we can now define a business information system as a group of interrelated components that work collectively to carry out input, processing, output, storage and control actions in order to convert data into information products that can be used to support forecasting, planning, control, coordination, decision making and operational activities in an organisation (Laudon and Laudon, 2007). In terms of the components that undertake this activity, they can be classified into five basic resources of people, hardware, software, communications and data. People resources include the users and developers of an information system and those who help maintain and operate the system such as IS managers and technical support staff. Hardware resources include computers and other items such as printers. Software resources refer to computer programs known as software and associated instruction manuals. Communications resources include networks and the hardware and software needed to support them. Data resources cover the data that an organisation has access to such as computer databases and paper files.

In most organisations Business Information Systems (BIS) make extensive use of information technology, such as personal computers. The reasons why computerised BIS have become widespread are evident in their advantages such as speed, accuracy and dependability. They also have a high degree of flexibility due to their ability to be programmed to carry out a wide variety of tasks. There are, however, some disadvantages to BIS such as their lack of creativity that humans possess and the difficulty of incorporating other factors into their decision making such as innovation and intuition.

Types of business information system

Information systems may be divided into two categories of systems that support an organisation’s day-to-day business activities and systems that support managerial decision making. Operations Information Systems (OIS) are generally concerned with process control, transaction processing and communications. Management Information Systems (MIS) are concerned with providing support to managerial decision making. Recently this division of BIS into operational and management systems, although useful for managers reviewing the types of BIS in use, does not now accurately reflect the reality of systems used within an organisation, particularly with the increased use of inter-organisational e-commerce and electronic data interchange (EDI). For example e-business systems and enterprise resource planning systems cut across both operational and management systems to provide businesses with more integrated information systems

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